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Indebtedness.-The State now owes the following undisputed debt:

Bonds drawing 5 per cent. interest.
Bonds drawing 6 per cent. interest.
Bonds drawing no interest

Interest overdue and unpaid...

Aggregate principal and interest........

8,100

of welcome. A short history of the Association was given by Prof. Young. It was founded in $22,000 1840, as a geological society, under the presi 2,291,000 dency of Prof. Hitchcock. The name was soon 2,108,043 changed to American Association of Geologists and Naturalists, and in 1847 its present title was adopted. During the civil war no meetings were held. For this meeting the following were the sections of the society, with their presidents and vice-presidents:

$5,108,043 Sufficient funds are in the treasury to redeem the $8,100 non-interest-bearing bonds not yet presented for redemption. There will be in the treasury on the 1st of January, 1885, about $250,000. The bonded debt outstanding is composed of the original $3,000,000 authorized to be issued for the establishment of a Real Estate and State banks, from which the $500,000 Holford bonds are to be deducted. Most of these bonds are funded under the act of 1869, and the interest is paid up to 1873. The question of a new funding act, by which all this indebtedness is to be refunded in a new bond, will occupy the attention of the incoming Legislature.

Wealth of the State. In 1883 the taxable property of the State was $126,862,392. The assessment for 1884 will show an increase of about $5,000,000. This is based on official returns from fifty-three out of the seventy-five counties in the State.

Population.-Immigration has steadily poured into the State during the year, the population now being estimated at 1,000,000.

Crops. From crop statistics made to the Secretary of State, it is ascertained that a much larger acreage was planted during the year than in 1883, and the yield was greater by one fourth, both of cotton and corn. The autumn season was exceptionally fine for the gathering of cotton, and the staple was exceed ingly good.

Public Lands.-The Commissioner of State

Lands reports that the State now has for disposal 80,000 acres of swamp and overflowed, and 2,000,000 acres of lands forfeited for the non-payment of taxes. The former are disposed of at one dollar an acre, the latter at fifty cents an acre, or, upon occupation and settlement, each head of a family can have 160 acres by simply paying an office-fee of five dollars.

ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. American.-The thirty-third meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Philadelphia, Sept. 4 to Sept. 11, 1884. Owing partly to the recent meeting of the British Association, it was more largely attended than ever before. Prof. C. A. Young, of Princeton, the retiring President, was succeeded by Prof. J. P. Lesley, of the University of Pennsylvania. At the opening meeting the necrological list for the year, and the list of proposed new members, the contributions received, etc., were read. The principal gift was one of $1,000 from Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson, of Stamford, Conn., to be expended in researches in heat and light. Governor Pattison, of Pennsylvania, delivered the address

A. Mathematics and Astronomy-H. T. Eddy, of Cincinnati; G. W. Hough, of Chicago.

B. Physics-John Trowbridge, of Cambridge; N. D. C. Hodges, of Salem.

R. B. Warder, of North Bend.
C. Chemistry-John W. Langley, of Ann Arbor;

D. Mechanical Science-R. H. Thurston, of Hoboken; J. Burkitt Webb, of Ithaca.

E. Geology and Geography-N. H. Winchell, of Minneapolis; Eugene A. Smith, of Tuscaloosa. Bessey, of Ames. F. Biology-E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia; C. E.

G. Histology and Microscopy-T. G. Wormley, of Philadelphia; Romeyn Hitchcock, of New York. H. Anthropology-E. S. Morse, of Salem; W. II Holmes, of Washington.

I. Economic Science and Statistics-John Eaton, of Washington; C. W. Smiley, of Washington.

on

The reading of papers, of which over 200 were announced, and of which 304 were finally read, was begun immediately on the opening of the sessions of the sections. Five sections met daily at 2.30 P. M., and the remaining four at 4 P. M. The papers of Prof. Langley on "The Study of Chemical Affinity," of Prof. Eddy on "The Modern Teaching of Mathematics in our Universities," and of Prof. Winchell "The Geology of the Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest," were among the important papers of the first day. On the second day, in the Anthropological Section, much attention was excited by a paper read by Mrs. Alice C. Fletcher on the habits and customs of the Omaha Indians. On this and succeeding days several papers in this section were read by ladies. In Section E, an interesting paper was read by Prof. J. E. Hilgard on "The Relative Level of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of MexiCo, with Remarks on the Gulf Stream and of level of the ocean at the mouth of the MisDeep-Sea Temperature." In it the difference sissippi and at Sandy Hook, N. J., was stated to be forty inches. This was regarded as a startling assertion, requiring the high authortechnical papers were read in the other secity of its author to sustain it. Other more tions. At a general meeting in the forenoon Prof. Minot presented a petition, signed by many eminent scientists, reading as follows: Association for the Advancement of Science and the The undersigned respectfully request the British American Association for the Advancement of Science to consider the advisability of forming an International Scientific Congress, to meet at intervals in the different countries, and, if it should be found desirable, to take measures to initiate the undertaking.

The same petition had been presented to the British Association in Montreal. The American Association referred it to a committee,

who were to confer with the British committee. It seems probable now that no such Congress will for the present be organized.

The proceedings were interrupted on the 6th and 7th; and on Monday, the 8th, more papers were read, and receptions were offered the members of the Association by the University of Pennsylvania and the Woman's Medical College. One of the notable papers of this day was presented by Thomas Hampson, in Section I, treating of the apprenticeship system, and the possibility of substituting therefor technical training by lectures or trade-schools. On the next day the election of officers for 1885 took place, with the following result: President.-Prof. H. A. Newton, of Yale. VicePresidents.-Section A: J. M. Van Vleck, of Middletown, Conn.; Section B: Prof. C. F. Brackett, Princeton College; Section C: William R. Nichols, Boston; Section D: Prof. S. Burkitt Webb, Cambridge; Section E: Prof. Edward Orton, Columbus, Ohio; Section F: Prof. B. G. Wilder, Cornell University; Section G: Prof. S. H. Gage, Cornell; Section H: Prof. William H. Dall, Washington; Section I: Prof. Edward Atkins, Boston. Permanent Secretary.-Prof. F. W. Putnam, of Cambridge (re-elected). General Secretary.-Charles Sedgwick Minot, Boston. Assistant General Secretary.-C. C. Abbott, Trenton. Secretaries of the Sections.-Section A: E. W. Hyde, of Cincinnati; Section B: Prof. A. A. Michaelson, of Cleveland, Ohio; Section C: Prof. F. P. Dunnington, University of Virginia; Section D: C. J. Woodbury, Boston; Section E: Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, Philadelphia; Section F: M. C. Fernald, Maine; Section G: W. H. Walmsley, Philadelphia; Section H: Chairman, Prof. Dall; Secretary, Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, New Jersey; Section I: J. W. Chickering.

This is the first time in the history of the society that a woman has been elected an officer of a section. Mrs. Smith had attracted much attention the week before at the Montreal meeting of the British Association, where her paper on the Iroquois Indians had been favorably received. The next place of meeting was also chosen-Bar Harbor, Maine, with Ann Arbor, Mich., as a second choice, in the discretion of the Secretary, if found more suitable. The general meeting closed with the adoption of resolutions, prepared by Prof. Trowbridge, asking Congress to provide at once for the extension of geodetic and topographic surveys over the whole country, without regard to State boundaries. In the Anthropological Section another paper on the Omaha Indians was read by Mr. Frank La Flesche, a full-blooded Omaha. In the same section Prof. Edwards Morse read a paper entitled "An Interview with a Corean." It was most interesting, and excited a great deal of attention. The chair was occupied during its reading by Prof. Kubuchu, of the University of Tokio. On the following day various excursions to the West and North were arranged for. One feature of the proceedings was a paper, read in Section H, by Prof. Graham Bell, on "The Evolution of a Race of DeafMutes in America." He asserted that congenital deafness was on the increase, and was hereditary to the fourth generation in some

cases. He advocated a mingling of the deaf and dumb with the rest of the people. When the last day of the session, Sept. 11th, was reached, only six of the nine sections were unadjourned. Most of the papers were technical. In the Section of Geology a paper of general interest, by Prof. H. Carrington Bolton, of Trinity College, and Prof. Alexis A. Julien, of Columbia College, was read. Its subject was "Musical Sand," a variety that produces a long, musical sound, like the note of a violin, when it is compressed. In the Chemical Section, Prof. A. Vernon Harcourt spoke, by special invitation, on "Minute Study of Chemical Change" and on "A Lamp for producing Constant Fire."

Owing to the illness of Prof. Lesley, Prof. Cope presided at the general meetings. By one census, the number of members, with guests, was put at 1,257, of whom 300 were foreigners. Among other exercises of special interest may be mentioned the following: Prof. Young's introductory lecture on "Pending Problems in Astronomy"; Prof. Cope on "Evolution and Origin of Life"; Prof. J. B. Martin, of England, on "The Future of the United States"; Prof. E. L. Nichols, of Lawrence, Kansas, on "The Sensitiveness of the Human Eye"; and Prof. R. S. Ball, Astronomer Royal of Ireland, on "The Methods of measuring Distances between the Stars." Three hundred scientists came by special train from Montreal, where the British Association had just closed its meeting.

Abstracts of the papers will be found printed in the journal "Science," published in Boston. British. The fifty-fourth annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Montreal, Canada, from Aug. 28 to Sept. 3, 1884. For the first time in its history its annual meeting occurred outside of the British Islands. The society was founded fifty-three years ago, by Sir David Brewster, Sir Humphry Davy, Sir John Hershel, and other eminent scientists. To attend the Montreal meeting 800 members crossed the ocean. The sum of $10,000 was raised in the city of Montreal to defray the expenses, and 300 members were received as guests in private residences. The Council of the Association invited the standing committees and fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science to attend as honorary members. The proceedings were opened with an address from the Mayor and Corporation of Montreal, and on the following day the Governor-General, Lord Lansdowne, welcomed the Association.

The President - elect, Lord Rayleigh, Professor of Experimental Physics in Cambridge University, was introduced by Sir William Thomson. Prof. Rayleigh's address on "Progress in Physics" has attracted much attention. The work of the society, which represented the reading of 327 papers, was divided among eight sections. The eight sections, whose presidents

and vice-presidents are given below, held meetings simultaneously in the different buildings of McGill University and in Synod Hall:

Sir William Thomson presided over the Section devoted to Mathematical and Physical Science, with Vice-Presidents Prof. J. B. Cherriman and J. W. L. Glaisher, the aeronautic celebrity; Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe over the Section of Chemical Science, assisted by Prof. Dewar and B. J. Harrington; Geological Section, W. T. Blanford, and Prof. T. Rupert Jones and A. R. C. Selwyn assisting; in Biology, Prof. H. N. Moseley, with Surgeon-Major G. E. Dobson and Prof. R. G. Lawson assisting; Geographical Section, Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, assisted by Col. Rhodes and P. L. Slater; Sir Richard Temple presided over the Section devoted to Economic Science and Statistics, assisted by J. B. Martin and Prof. J. Clark Murray; Mechanical-Science Section, Sir F. J. Bramwell, assisted by Prof. H. T. Bovey and W. H. Preece; the Section of Anthropology, Prof. E. B. Tylor, aided by Profs. W. Boyd Dawkins and Daniel Wilson.

In addition to the section papers, evening lectures were delivered by different members. The general order included the reading of an address by the president of each section, followed by papers by other members. It would be useless to attempt to summarize any of the papers. Among the more notable ones may be mentioned the following: "The Economic Resources of England," by Sir Richard Temple; "Complex Inorganic Acids," by Prof. Wolcott Gibbs, of Harvard University; "Vortex and Ring Constitution of Matter," by Sir William Thomson; "The Geological Work of the Surveys of India, Australia, and South Africa," by Prof. W. T. Blanford; "On the Seat of Electro-motive Force in the Voltaic Cell," by Prof. J. O. Lodge; “On the Evolution of the North American Continent," by Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia College; "On the Customs and Language of the Iroquois," by Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith. This is the lady who was elected Secretary of Section H of the American Association. Her paper dealt with the superstitions, customs, and languages of the tribe in question. She was received into the tribe of the Tuscaroras some years ago, and adopted as sister by one of the chiefs. She paid a high tribute to the work of the Roman Catholic missionaries. She gave illustrations of the etymology of the language, and exhibited several curiosities. Her paper, which attracted much attention, was honored by a discussion in which Prof. Dawkins, Mr. Cushing, Dr. Wilson, and Prof. Tylor, president of the section, were partakers. The unusual circumstances of her position among the Indians gave her statements the highest value and interest. Besides these, Prof. Thurston, of the Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J., gave a paper on the steam-engine, which was exceedingly well received; while Prof. Asa Gray, of Harvard College, received an ovation on the production of his paper on "North American Vegetation." Referring to the reception of American scientists, it may now be said that both Prof. Thurston's and Prof. Gay's papers were among the five lectures recom

mended by the Association for printing at full length; while McGill University conferred upon Prof. Gray and Dr. James Hall, State Geologist of New York, the degree of LL. D. Of the whole number of papers read, about forty, or one eighth, were by Americans. During the progress of the meeting, Lieut. Greely, the Arctic explorer, was present, and took such part as his feeble health allowed. He was accompanied by Lieut. Ray, who spoke upon the result of the recent Arctic expedition. total membership of 1,773 was reported. The At the meeting of the General Committee, a committee then adjourned, to meet in London, Nov. 11. The closing meeting was held in Queen's Hall, Sept. 3, with Lord Rayleigh in the chair, when Sir William Dawson, Principal of McGill University, conferred the degree

of LL. D. on nineteen of the members. The Association adjourned, to meet again in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1885. Three hundred of the members then went to Philadelphia, to attend the meeting of the American Association, where they were formally received Sept. 7.

One of the features of the British Society is its committee-work. Many reports were received from committees on different subjects, and the sum of £1,525, or $7,500 nearly, was allowed for this class of work, divided among 30 committees, while 11 received no allowance. Reports of the various papers will be found in the journals, "Nature," published in London, and "Science," published in Boston.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. Observatories and Instruments.-The most important event in the history of observatories in this country during 1884 has been the completion of the Lick Observatory in California. Its meridian circle has been completed by the Repsolds, of Hamburg, and was mounted during the month of September, 1884, under the direction of Prof. E. S. Holden. This completes the main instrumental outfit, with the exception of the great telescope, which is to be larger and more powerful than any ever before made. A difficulty has been met with in the construction of this instrument which prevents us from fixing a definite time for its completion. The optician, Feil, of Paris, who contracted to supply the rough glass disk, has not yet produced a crown glass of the necessary size, although the contract was made with him in 1880. The result is, that the instrument can hardly be said to have advanced beyond its first stage, because, until the glass is in the hands of the optician, the exact size and length of the telescope must be a matter of some uncertainty. This delay is the more to be regretted from the fact that the fine collection of instruments which the observatory now possesses can not be made fully available for astronomical uses until the great telescope is completed. By the terms of Mr. Lick's donation the trustees have no power to employ an astronomer. Their duties are confined to completing the observatory and telescope, and,

when all is ready, the whole establishment is to be turned over to the Board of Regents of the University of California, who are to appoint a professor. The institution is to be thereafter the astronomical department of the university. Unless some arrangement can be made for evading the legal difficulty thus arising, the instruments must stand idle for several years to come.

Two important additions have been made to the great telescopes of the world. The companion of the great Washington telescope, which was nearly finished ten years ago, has since been lying idle in the workshop of the Messrs. Clark, awaiting the completion of the McCormick Observatory of the University of Virginia, for which it was designed. This observatory is now so far completed that the telescope was mounted in the autumn of 1884. The other addition has been the Russian telescope of thirty inches aperture, which ranks as the largest refractor yet made. The glass was completed by the Messrs. Clark about the beginning of 1883. In the spring following Director Struve visited the United States for the purpose of testing the glass and accepting it if found satisfactory. Having found the result to more than fulfill his best expectations, the glass was shipped to Pulkowa, where it has since laid, awaiting the completion of the mounting, and of the dome which is to contain it. The mechanical difficulties of getting a dome more than sixty feet in diameter into working operation were such that the telescope could not be mounted until the autumn of 1884. The mechanical work of the mounting is, in the number and ingenuity of its devices for convenient use, far ahead of any similar work heretofore devised, and reflects additional credit on the Repsolds, of Hamburg, the renowned firm to whom the work is due. The eye-piece alone is a piece of mechanism which in the variety and number of its parts seems to equal the whole outfit of an ordinary observatory. The rigor of the Russian winter is unfavorable to astronomical observations, but it is expected that active work with the new instrument will be commenced early in the spring.

New Method of mounting Reflectors.-The Messrs. Henry, at Paris, have devised a method of mounting the mirrors of great reflecting telescopes which, if entirely successful, may result in greatly increasing the limits of size of these instruments. Theoretically, a reflecting telescope can be constructed of far greater power than the largest possible refractor, because there is no limit to its size. But in practice it is found that reflectors of more than two or three feet in diameter so change their form by the pressure of their own weight that they can not form good images of a celestial object. The very simple but ingenious device of M. Henry consists in grinding the back of the reflector so that it shall accurately fit upon a stiff disk of the same size and form as the reflector it

self.

A sheet of fine flannel is then interposed between the two, and the reflector is supported upon the flannel. The result of the elasticity of the flannel is that the reflector is sustained with greater uniformity than by any other system. This method is founded on the same general idea as that of the late Dr. Henry Draper, who mounted his reflector with great success upon an air-cushion of rubber.

Equatorial Coudé.—This term has been applied to an instrument of new construction recently mounted at the Paris Observatory. The main tube of the telescope is directed toward the south pole, and therefore in the latitude of Paris looks downward at an angle of 48° with the horizon. It is so mounted as to turn round on its own axis, but is otherwise immovable. From its lower end a second tube projects at right angles, so that when the first tube is turned round, this second one sweeps along the plane of the equator. In the elbow at the junction point, a reflector is placed at an angle of 45° with each tube. At the end of the second tube is placed a second reflector, mounted upon an axis concentric with the tube, with which it also makes an angle of 45°. By turning this second reflector the line of sight is made to sweep along the meridian from one pole to the other. By turning the telescope upon its axis it sweeps in right ascension, and thus by combining the two motions the line of sight can be directed to any point in the heavens. The eye-piece being fixed, the observer sits in a comfortable room looking down into the telescope, which he directs from point to point by simply turning one of two handles. The convenience in use is very important, and it is expected that far more work can be done than with the usual form of instrument. The images of the stars are not seriously injured by the two reflections, a result due to the system of mounting the reflectors on flannel sheets.

The largest and finest heliometer yet made has been brought into activity at the observatory of Yale College. One of the first works undertaken by it is the triangulation of the Pleiades by Dr. W. L. Elkin. A yet finer and larger instrument has been contracted for by Directer David Gill for the observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, and will probably be completed by the Repsolds during the year 1885.

Astronomical Work under the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department. The United States Naval Observatory.-The annual report of the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation to the Secretary of the Navy comprises detailed reports of the astronomical work of the Naval Observatory. A board has been organized, consisting of the Superintendent, the senior Professor of Mathematics, and the senior line officer, who are to deliberate from time to time upon the conduct of the observatory, and whose conclusions shall form the basis of work to be done in each year. Each officer in charge of a separate branch of work is to submit annually or often

ness.

er a statement of its conditions, and what he proposes to do during the coming year. It is proposed to distribute this programme among other observatories, in order to avoid the duplication of work. A recommendation of the preceding year is also renewed that a board of visitors be appointed annually to examine into the conduct of the observatory and make such suggestions as may add to its general usefulWith the great equatorial Prof. Hall has continued his observations of the satellites of the planets Mars, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, and has also made some determinations of stellar parallax. Good progress has been made in reducing the observations of these satellites made in preceding years, and it is proposed to continue it steadily until all the observations have been completely reduced and the final results obtained. With the transit circle Prof. Eastman has continued the observations upon the sun, moon, and planets, as made in previous years. The old equatorial, in charge of Commander Sampson, has been employed principally in observing comets, small planets, and occultations. Time-signals are sent to various points in the United States as usual, and since Nov. 18, 1883, the noon-signal has been given corresponding to the seventy-fifth meridian west of Greenwich, or eight minutes twelve seconds before Washington noon. An appropriation for beginning work upon the proposed new observatory, for which a site was purchased three years ago, is again requested.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.-In previous volumes of this "Cyclopædia " mention has been made of Prof. Langley's researches upon the sun's heat. These researches mark an epoch in the history of the subject, from the facts that those made on Mount Whitney were made under conditions more favorable than any which have hitherto been obtained, that they were made with a newly invented instrument of extraordinary sensitiveness (the bolometer), and that the law of absorption in the atmosphere was taken into account more accurately than by previous investigators. Beginning with questions of atmospheric absorption, Prof. Langley remarks that in all previous investigations of the subject it has been assumed that every successive layer of atmosphere through which the solar rays passed absorbed a quantity of solar heat proportional to its density and the length of the path of light through it. He showed that, although this law was true of light of any one color, it was not true when the whole light and heat of every color or wavelength was measured. To show the principle involved let us suppose light of two colors, red and blue, to come from the sun to our atmosphere. Let us also imagine that the atmosphere exerts a very powerful absorption on the blue light, but suffers the red light to pass freely. Then a large quantity of blue light will be absorbed in the upper regions of the air, thus leaving very little of that color to reach the lower levels. The result will be that a small

er proportion of the total light will be absorbed at the lower levels, because nearly all the blue light having already been absorbed, there will be none of that color left to be absorbed, while the red light passes freely in any case. Now, since observations can only be made at the lower strata near the earth, it follows that the rate of absorption in these strata will be less than in the higher strata. Consequently, the allowance for absorption will be too small, and the quantity of heat emitted by the sun, as calculated from observation at the earth's surface, will likewise be too small. If the difference of the rates of absorption depended only upon the red and blue, as we have supposed, the problem would be easy of solution; in fact, however, the light which is most absorbed is scattered all through the spectrum, as is shown by the dark lines, and it thus becomes impossible to make an accurate calculation. Prof. Langley, however, found that from the best estimate that he could make it was probable that 40 per cent. of the total amount of heat radiated by the sun toward the earth was absorbed in the clearest atmosphere. By measuring the quantity of heat which actually reached his instrument, and allowing for the absorption, he reached the following conclusion:

Let a plane surface measuring one square centimetre be exposed perpendicularly to the sun's heat at the mean distance of the earth from the sun; and let the absorbing atmesphere be entirely removed. Then the quantity of heat which will fall on that surface will be such as will raise the temperature of one gramme of water at the rate of nearly 3° centigrade per minute. This result is considerably greater than that obtained by previous experimenters who observed under less favorable conditions and did not properly allow for absorption.

In connection with these researches Prof. Langley has also investigated the heat spectrum of the sun far below the ordinary visible spectrum, and found in it a great number of lines produced by the absorption of the sun's atmosphere or that of the earth. Respecting the apparatus with which these determinations were made, Prof. Langley remarks that although its results are better than those generally obtained in heat measures, it is necessarily inferior to the eye, and that its use may possibly at some future time be superseded by photography. The general result may be summed up as follows: Besides the light-waves that can be perceived by the eye, the sun sends out heatwaves, which differ from the light-waves in nothing except being of greater length and therefore imperceptible to the eye. This has been long known, but Prof. Langley, by inventing a species of artificial eye, as embodied in the bolometer, has been enabled to investigate these obscure rays and measure their wavelength to a higher degree of accuracy than had before been attained. He concludes that this dark spectrum is far longer than was supposed,

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