1871, but, on account of the darkness and drifting ice, they were forced to return, after much suffering, without accomplishing their object. The sun disappeared October 15th, and was absent 135 days, the twilight varying from half an hour to twenty-four hours. For two months continuously the light was so dim that the dial of a watch could not be read by it. The stars were visible constantly for three months, and at times the naked eye could discern those of one degree smaller magnitude than were visible in lower latitudes. The constellations were of great brilliance, and the moon was above the horizon for eleven or twelve days at a time. "Over all," said Lieut. Greely, was a dead silence, so horribly oppressive that a man alone is almost tempted to kill himself, so lonely does he feel."

66

The long winter was passed somewhat monotonously in observations, military discipline, attention to sanitary necessities, and amusements. The quarters were heated by a coalstove to the average temperature of 50°, games were indulged in, theatrical and musical entertainments were attempted, a paper was published, lectures were delivered, and holidays and birthdays were celebrated with exceptional festivities. A considerable part of the season of 1882 was devoted to geographical exploration. As early as February 19th, Lieut. Lockwood and Sergeant Brainerd, with a dog team, set out to examine Robeson Channel from Cape Beechy, and going half across returned to camp on the 22d. Setting out again on the 1st of March, re-enforced by Sergeant Jewell and Esquimau Frederick, they crossed to Cape Lupton and examined the stores left at Thank God Harbor by the Polaris, which they found in good condition but scanty. The party was gone seven days, living in snow houses and experiencing a temperature of 56° below zero. March 13th, Brainerd with seven men started again and placed a boat and provisions at the Polaris boat camp, returning in seven days after suffering intensely from a temperature of 61° below zero. These movements were in preparation for a trip on which Lieut. Lockwood started on the 3d of April with Brainerd, the Esquimau, Frederick Christensen, and a dogteam, to explore the northern coast of Greenland. They were supported as far as Cape Bryan by a party of eight, and proceeded thence with 25 days' provisions directly across the ice to Cape Britannia. Here the land trended to the west of north to Cape North, where they turned to the northeastward through a region never before trodden by man. Struggling through a severe storm lasting seven days, they reached the highest point ever attained toward the north pole, which was called Lockwood Island, latitude 83° 24.5' north, longitude 40° 45' west, on the 13th of May. A point of land visible some fifteen miles to the northeast was named Cape

Robert Lincoln. They were forced to economize provisions and hasten their return on account of the exhaustion of their supplies. Vegetation was found to be scanty, and similar to that of Grinnell Land, but evidences of animal life were abundant. Traces of hares, lemmings, musk-oxen, bears, ptarmigan, and snow-bunting, were seen between Cape Britannia and Lockwood Island. The coast was high and abrupt, and cut by numerous fiords and inlets. A cairn was erected covering a record of the trip, and the party returned southward May 15th, picking up the Union Jack and sextant dropped by Lieut. Beaumont, of the Nares expedition of 1875, and arriving in camp June 1st, having been absent 59 days. Dr. Pavy and Sergeant Rice, with a team of nine dogs and the Esquimau driver Jens, had set out on the 19th of March to discover land to the north of Cape Joseph Henry. Supplies were advanced to the latter point. The sledge breaking down, Rice and Jens returned on foot, without sleeping-bags or tents, a distance of fifty miles, and obtained a new runner, rejoining their leader in five days. On reaching lat. 82° 56', a southerly gale detached the ice-pack on which they were traveling, and they drifted about for twenty-four hours with an open lane of water between them and the land. A change of wind drove them shoreward, and they managed to escape with the loss of their tent and supplies. They reached Fort Conger May 5th, without having accomplished anything of value.

Lieut. Greely made two trips into the interior of Grinnell Land during the summer. He set out on April 25th, and was absent twelve days, proceeding with sledges by Conybeare Bay, which he found to lengthen out into Weyprecht Fiord. Into the latter Ruggles River discharged from the northwest. Following its course for fifteen miles, he discovered a lake sixty miles long by ten wide, which he called Lake Hazen. The chief source of the water seemed to be the ice-caps of northern Grinnell Land. Musk-oxen, wolves, hares, and ptarmigan were seen in the vicinity of the lake. The most extensive glaciers of this region were named Gilman Abbe and Henrietta Nesmith. The second trip began June 24th. Lieut. Greely was accompanied by Sergt. Linn, and, carrying packs of ninety pounds each, they advanced fifty miles beyond the turning-point of the former trip. They were forced to ford or swim a number of streams, and were exposed to much hardship. Two ranges of mountains were discovered, running nearly parallel with the United States range, which they called respectively Garfield and Conger. The highest peak was called Mount Chester A. Arthur, 5,000 feet in altitude. Lieut. Greely ascended this, and was satisfied that Grinnell Land ended but a short distance westward, with a coast-line extending to the southwest from the extreme point reached by Lieut. Aldrich, R. N., in 1876. Evidences of ancient Esquimau camps were

seen in this region. After much suffering and peril, the station was again reached July 15th. The ice began to break up in Discovery Harbor July 9th, and by August 6th Lady Franklin Bay was practically clear. Greely ran down August 12th with the steam-launch to Cape Cracroft to leave provisions, and could see no ice in Kennedy Channel to the south. Dr. Pavy and Corporal Ellison made an overland trip in the latter part of August from Cape Baird to Carl Ritter Bay, and discovered a large valley extending across Daly Peninsula from Cape Baird to Cape Defosse. Several trips were made by Lockwood in the launch, one to the head of Archer's Fiord, whence he brought twelve musk-oxen, and one to Weyprecht Fiord. In September the hope of relief was given up, and the party settled down to a second winter in their quarters, their supplies being sufficient to occasion no uneasiness. From October 26th to November 5th, Dr. Pavy and Sergeant Brainerd made a trip to Carl Ritter Bay with a dogteam, but discovered no sign of any vessel. The winter was passed much as the first had been, and in February, 1883, preparations began to be made for the retreat. Caches of provisions were made at Cape Baird by Brainerd, and at Cape Sumner, Newman's Bay, by Lockwood and others. An attempt was made under Lockwood early in April at further explorations on the north coast of Greenland, but the party was forced to return in six days, having encountered open water and escaping with difficulty from a floe that became detached from the main body of ice. Sergeant Rice and a party of twelve men visited Hall's Rest and returned after six days with the ice-boat Beaumont. April 24th Lockwood, Brainerd, and the Esquimau Fred set out for the interior of Grinnell Land. They traveled to Ella Bay, Arthur Fiord, and their further progress was prevented by the twin glaciers. A mountain 5,000 feet high was seen here which was called Mount Difficulty. Turning back and following the shores of Beatrix Bay, they reached the west coast of Grinnell Land and looked out on the Polar Ocean. They discovered an immense inland glacier, forming the icecap of southern Grinnell Land and separated from the northern ice-cap by a belt of land sixty miles wide. This glacier presented a face two hundred feet high, and its surface conformed apparently to that of the underlying land, presenting the appearance of hills and valleys and abrupt peaks. It was called Agassiz Glacier. The farthest western point was reached May 13th, latitude 80° 48′ 39′′ north, longitude 78° 26' west. A cliff 2,200 feet high, containing petrified roots and other fossil remains, was ascended on the 16th, and it was found that the land terminated on the north side in a high headland fifty or sixty miles away, which was called Cape Brainerd. A corresponding headland to the south was called Cape Lockwood. Beyond the latter, and separated from it by open water, was discov

ered what was supposed to be new land, which was named Arthur Land. After a trying and difficult journey through snow-storms and with short rations, the party reached Fort Conger on the return, May 26th. A six days' trip to the northwest was made by Lockwood and Brainerd in June (13th-19th), without important result. More active preparations were then made for the retreat. The ice began to break up August 4th, and on the 19th the way was open for boats, and the party abandoned their camp with the steam-launch Lady Greely, the whaleboat Narwhal, the jolly-boat Valorous, left at the Cape Hawks by the English and brought by the Proteus in 1881, and the ice-boat Beaumont, leaving the dogs behind, with four barrels of pork and some seal-oil.

By this expedition, exploration of the northern coast of Greenland was carried one degree of latitude and about ten degrees of longitude farther than the point previously attained. From an elevation of 2,000 feet, Lieut. Lockwood could see no land to the north, and it has been concluded by some authorities that Greenland is an island extending little or not at all beyond 84° north latitude. The region of Dr. Hayes's open polar sea was filled with icepacks. Lockwood, in sounding between Cape Britannia and Cape Bryant, failed to touch bottom with a line of 165 fathoms. The vege tation and animal life encountered at the highest point attained was not different from that before known. The deflection of the magnetic needle was 104° west. The explorations of Greely on Grinnell Land are supposed to establish the fact that it is an island, the western border of which was reached, Grant Land being a peninsula connected with it. Many new features of this region were laid down, including mountains, rivers, and lakes. The highest temperature observed at Lady Franklin Bay was 52° above zero, June 30, 1882, the lowest 66° below, in February, 1883. During the latter month the mercury was frozen, and remained solid for fifteen days. The mercury invariably rose in the thermometer during storms or high winds. The highest barometer was slightly above thirty-one inches, and the lowest slightly below twenty-nine, showing a great range, the greatest variations being in winter. The average temperature of the water was 29° above zero. The highest velocity of wind observed was seventy miles an hour, which occurred during a snow-storm. From the electrometer no results whatever were obtained, much to the surprise of the observer. The displays of aurora were not to be compared with those observed at Disco and Upernavik. The brightest displays were in the southwestern horizon. The general shape was that of a ribbon, and no crackling sound was noticed. Shadows were distinctly seen by its light. There were no electrical disturbances, except a rumbling like distant thunder. It was found that the tides at Lady Franklin Bay came from the north, while those at Cape Sabine came

from the south, the former having the higher temperature by 2°. The average rise of spring tides was eight feet at Lady Franklin Bay and twelve feet at Cape Sabine.

As to the results of Arctic exploration, Lieut. Greely said:

I do not think the north pole can be reached unless every circumstance hitherto found to be unfavorable should prove favorable to the party attempting to reach the pole. If it is to be done at all, it will be done by way of Franz-Josef Land. It could never have been reached by the Jeannette's route. That there is an open polar sea, I am well-nigh certain. This is proved by the ice drifting out of Muscle Bay and Spitzbergen in midwinter, and the northern drift of the polar pack experienced by Pavy and Lockwood in 82 83'. Men can stand two winters very well at Franklin Bay, but physical strength rapidly deteriorates. If we had had every supply and necessary of food, we could have lived perhaps eight or ten years at Lady Franklin Bay.

When the party left Fort Conger, they left two tons of coal from a supply mined at WaterCourse Bay, and eight months' supplies, in case they should be driven to return, relying mainly for provisions on the deposits of the relief expeditions. The records of the expedition, copies of photographs, and four dozen negatives, together with the lighter instruments, including the pendulum, were taken in the boats. The steam-launch towed the other boats, the people and stores being divided among them. After some difficulty with an ice-pack and a narrow escape from a nip, they reached Baird Inlet on the 10th, where three tons of coal and some stores had been left. From that point they proceeded with fifty days' supplies. At Cape Cracroft they took up 48 pounds of corned beef left the previous season and ran on to Carl Ritter Bay. The provisions left there by the Proteus in 1881, 200 rations, and 240 cachéd at Cape Cullinson by Nares in 1875, were taken on board. After being frozen in the ice five days, detained by the boats being forced on shore, and narrowly escaping from several "nips," they arrived at Cape Hawkes August 26th. They left a record on Washington Irving Island and obtained a small addition to their supplies in potatoes and pickles from an English cache, the bread being mostly spoiled. Leaving the same day, they were soon struggling with the ice-packs and made extremely slow progress for a number of days, suffering intensely from the cold. After being driven to and fro by the gales and tides and drifting icefloes, they were compelled, Sept. 10th, to abandon the launch and the Valorous, and retreat over the floes with their two remaining boats, two sleds, and their provisions. Two journeys had to be made over the hummocky ice with each sled to convey the provisions and boats, and only about a mile a day could be accomplished. On the 13th they had to abandon the Narwhal, in order to save the larger sled, which was weakening. Driven back and forth by the gales on the crumbling floe, forced to give up their encampment of snow-houses, they succeeded with great difficulty, on the 29th of

September, in escaping to the shore on the north side of Baird Inlet, where they began to construct their winter-quarters. Rice and the Esquimau Jens were sent to Cape Sabine to ascertain the condition of affairs, and Long and the Esquimau Frederick were detailed as hunters. Game was very scarce, and only three seals and a few ptarmigan were obtained. Rice returned Oct. 9th with the discouraging news of the result of the Garlington expedition, obtained from records at Cape Sabine, and the scantiness of the supplies awaiting them there. They determined to abandon Esquimau Point, as they had called it, starting the next day. They traveled along a strait discovered by Rice, and called by his name, connecting Rosse Bay and Buchanan Straits, which proved Cape Sabine to be an island. Rice and Jens diverged to Cape Isabella, where 144 pounds of meat were found, left there by the English in 1875. Considering the prospects, rations were reduced Sept. 25th, and the meat allowance was only six ounces. They reached the Proteus wreck cache, Oct. 15th, four miles northwest of Cape Sabine, and proceeded to establish there their winter-quarters, calling them Camp Clay. All their supplies were gathered there except one load cached at Cocked Hat Island. They built a rude hut by piling up stones for a wall about twenty-five feet by seventeen. Over it was placed a whaleboat left by Beebe in 1882 at Starknecht Island, and the rest of the roof was formed by stretching boat-sails and tent-canvas from the boat to the eaves, which were five feet from the ground. Snow was banked up against the walls to keep out the wind. There was barely fuel enough to warm the food. Canvas was stretched on the ground and covered with buffalo overcoats, and on these the sleeping-bags were placed, which were frequently frozen stiff. The only light was derived from an Esquimau lamp, consisting of a single wick dipped in seal-oil. A rude scale was improvised, with cartridges for weights, for the distribution of the scanty rations, which were dealt out by Brainerd. In the latter part of October, Long and the two Esquimaux were stationed at the junction of Rice and Buchanan Straits to obtain game, living in a hut on short rations, and suffering intensely from cold and hunger. They returned Nov. 8th, having obtained only three seals. On the 2d of November, Rice, Linn, Ellison, and Fredericks set out with a small sled to obtain the meat left at Cape Isabella. On the 9th, Rice returned, reporting that the party was at the head of Rosse Bay, suffering severely, and that Ellison was dying. Relief was sent under Brainerd, who, on the 12th, reached them with food and medicine. Ellison was badly frozen and delirious, and afterward lost his feet and hands. Fredericks and Linn had to be cut from their frozen sleeping-bags. With the aid of Lockwood, who had come with a second relief party, the men were got back to Camp Clay, the object of the trip being given up.

From November 1st the rations had been reduced to four and a third ounces meat and blubber, six and a half ounces bread and dog-biscuit, one and two fifths canned vegetables and rice, three fourths butter and lard, nine tenths soups and beef-extract, one ounce cloud-berries, pickles, raisins, and milk. On this basis it was calculated that the supplies would last till March 1st, with ten days' reserve for crossing to Littleton Island, but the gales that prevailed all winter prevented the sound from closing. Efforts were made to keep up cheerfulness by reading over and over again their scanty literature, including scraps of newspaper found in a box of lemons left by Garlington, and by lectures and anecdotes. A show of celebrating birthdays and holidays was also kept up, but nothing could relieve the utter dreariness and apparent hopelessness of the situation. Sergeant Cross died Jan. 18th, of scurvy, it was said. On the 1st of February, Rice and the Esquimau made an attempt to reach Littleton Island, but were compelled to return after six days' absence, having found the water open. The minimum temperature was 50° below zero in January. The supplies were eked out by a few Arctic foxes, dovekies, and ptarmigan shot near the camp. Long, with the Esquimaux, set out March 13th for Alexandria Harbor to look for game, but returned empty-handed in three or four days. Long, on this trip, discovered, from the western side of Mount Carri, three capes in Hazen Sound beyond the farthest reported by Nares. Early in April the food began to consist largely of salt shrimps or sea-flies, of which it took 1,300 to fill a gallon-measure, which contained little nutriment, lichens,sea-weed, saxifrage, and boiled seal-skin, though a trifling amount was still given out from the carefully husbanded supplies. In April a small seal and a bear were shot. On the 4th of April the Esquimau Frederick succumbed, being the first to die of starvation. On the 17th of that month the other Esquimau was drowned, depriving the party of the use of the kyak in recovering game shot in the water. There being no hope of reaching Littleton Island, Rice and Fredericks volunteered to go to Baird Inlet to obtain the English meat supposed to be cachéd at a place named Bad Creek, fifteen miles from the camp. They started April 6th, but encountered terrific gales, and on the fourth day Rice died on the ice, of exposure and exhaustion. Fredericks returned to the camp, and went back next day and buried Rice on the ice-floe. From this time the men fell off rapidly from starvation. For several weeks before the rescue no regular rations were served out, and the surviving men spent most of the time in a halflethargic state in their sleeping-bags. On the 4th of May, the winter hut, which was only six feet above high water, had been abandoned, and the survivers moved up the hill and lived under a tent.

Long and Brainerd were the strongest of the party, and were the first to hear the signal of

the steam-launch from the rescuing vessels. All had been without food for twenty-four hours, and all but these two were on the very verge of starvation. They helped each other to crawl out of the tent, and managed to clamber up a little height, but, seeing nothing, Brainerd turned hopelessly back. Long continued to watch until he descried the boat, and then succeeded in raising the signal at the old camp. With tottering steps and glaring eyes he met Capt. Ash as he landed, and, in a few minutes, relief entered the tent of the almost dying party. Connell was recovered with difficulty, and Ellison died after the rescue.

The bodies of the dead, which had been buried near the camp, were exhumed, identified, wrapped up, and packed in ice, until tanks of alcohol could be prepared for their transportation. These were ready in three days, and the bodies were placed in them, wrapped in strips of cotton cloth. On the 23d of June, Lieut. Emory returned from Payer Harbor to the Cape Sabine camp, and made a careful examination of the neighborhood, and, on his return, the ships crossed to Littleton Island. The vessels were subsequently brought together at Disco, and set out thence for St. John's, as already related. With the exception of the collier, Loch Garry, the vessels were detained at St. John's until iron caskets could be provided for the dead, and memorial services were held in the churches of that city on Sunday, July 20th. Sick-leave was granted to the men of the Greely party, who were all progressing favorably, and the vessels were directed to rendezvous at Portsmouth. They left St. John's July 26th, and arrived at Portsmouth Aug. 1st. They were met there by Secretary Chandler, and Gen. Hazen and other visitors, and a touching scene occurred when Lieut. Greely's mother and wife were brought on board the Thetis. The party were transferred to comfortable quarters in the city of Portsmouth, and on the 4th of August a public demonstration of welcome took place. Those in whose honor it was chiefly given were unable to join in the procession, but were present at the reviewing stand at the Rockingham House. Their weakness would not permit of their presence at a public meeting, which was held at the Music Hall, where an address of welcome was delivered by the mayor of the city. Secretary Chandler gave the audience an account of the services of Greely and his men, and of the efforts for their relief and rescue, and complimentary addresses were made by Gov. Hale, of New Hampshire; the Hon. S. J. Randall, of Pennsylvania; Gen. Hazen, and others. The vessels of the Relief Expedition left Portsmouth for New York, Aug. 5th, and arrived there with the remains of the dead on the evening of the 7th. The bodies were landed on the 8th at Governor's Island, with appropriate ceremonies, there to be delivered into the charge of sorrowing friends and relatives. Eleven iron caskets were placed side by side in the

military hospital, each bearing the name of the occupant. The bodies of Privates Henry and Snider were unclaimed, and were sent to Cypress Hills Cemetery for burial. That of Lieut. Lockwood was sent to friends at Annapolis; that of Lieut. Kislingbury to Rochester, N. Y.; Sergt. Israel's to Kalamazoo, Mich.; Sergt. Ralston's to Howard, Ohio; Sergt. Linn's to Philadelphia; Sergt. Cross's to Washington; Private Whistler's to Delphi, Ind.; Corp. Ellison's to Pottsville, Pa.; and Private Ellis's to Clyde, N. Y. Lieut. Greely employed his sickleave in visiting friends and relatives at Newburyport, Mass., where a public reception was given him, Aug. 14th, and the other survivors were left at liberty until two of them were reported to have made a contract for public exhibitions at museums, when they were peremptorily ordered to report for duty.

Almost immediately after the bodies of the dead had been disposed of, the fact became public that, when found, the fleshy portions of several of them had been cut away, and it was inferred that they had been used for food by the desperate survivors. This was neither admitted nor denied at the time by any of the officers of the expedition, though Lieut. Greely declared that, if anything of the kind occurred, it did not come to his knowledge. There was also a report of dissensions among the men at Cape Sabine, and a division into two factions, but this was denied and could not be verified. The statement in regard to the treatment of the bodies of the dead was proved in the case of Lieut. Kislingbury by the exhumation and examination of the remains, at Rochester, under the direction of medical experts; and in his official report Commander Schley said:

In preparing the bodies of the dead for transportation in alcohol to St. John's it was found that six of them, Lieut. Kislingbury, Sergts. Jewell and Ralston, Privates Whistler, Henry, and Ellis, had been cut, and the fleshy parts removed to a greater or less extent. All other bodies were found intact.

The fact had also become known that Private Henry did not die a natural death, but had been shot. In regard to this, Lieut. Greely promptly made a report declaring that Henry had been shot by his orders, and after reiterated demands from his men, for persistently stealing from the meager supply of provisions on which the lives of all the men equally depended. The lieutenant asked for a court of inquiry or a court-martial to examine into the matter, in case it was deemed advisable by the Secretary of War. No order for this purpose was given. The controversy in regard to the responsibility for the failure of the expedition of 1883 was renewed after the rescue of the survivors. Gen. Hazen in his annual report said: "Up to the return of the expedition this year, I had hoped there would be no occasion for raising the question of blame at this or any future time. But new light has been cast upon the subject and with it my duty becomes plain, and the truth of history and justice to all call

for such impartial inquiry and authoritative judgment as a tribunal broad enough to embrace the whole question shall institute and pronounce, and the Congress of the United States is manifestly such a tribunal. . . . I therefore trust that this whole matter of the Lady Franklin Bay expedition and the expeditions organized for its relief will be deemed worthy of a thorough investigation by Congress." Gen. Hazen insisted that both Lieut. Greely in the Arctic, and the Signal Bureau in Washington, carried out their part of the prearranged plans of rescue literally and successfully in every particular. He referred to the failure of Lieut. Garlington to replace the spoiled provisions at Cape Sabine, and quoted from a letter by Lieut. Greely to him April 30th, supposing himself at the point of death, as follows: "Had Lieut. Garlington carried out your orders and replaced the 240 rations of rum and 120 alcohol in English cache here, and the 210 pounds moldy English bread, spoiled English chocolate and potatoes, melted sugar, and the 210 pounds of rotten dog-biscuit, we would without doubt be saved."

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independent republic of South America: area, 1,168,682 square miles; population (as officially estimated in September, 1882), 2,942,000*; and that of the capital, Buenos Ayres, 295,000.

Immigration. The following table exhibits the nationality and number of the immigrants landed at Buenos Ayres in the years 1880, 1881, 1882, and 1883:

Total......

26,643 81,468 41,041 52,472

Government, Public Offices, etc.-By the terms of the Constitution, bearing date of May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1860, the executive power is vested in a President, elected for six years by representatives of the fourteen prov inces, equal to double the number of senators and deputies combined. The President is commander-in-chief of the army, appoints all civil, military, and judicial office-holders, and has the right of presentation to bishoprics. He is solely responsible for the acts of the executive. The legislative power resides in a National Congress consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The senators, twenty-eight in number, elected by the provincial Legisla

For details of area, population, etc., reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1858.